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Building and regulations: free practice, theory and problems
Every building must carry its loads safely down to the ground. The choice of structural system shapes both the spaces and the architecture.
Contents
1. Structural systems
What is it about?
Every building must carry its loads safely down to the ground. The choice of structural system shapes both the spaces and the architecture.
Key points
- Loads: dead load (the building itself), imposed load (people, furniture), snow load and wind load.
- Post-and-beam system: beams carry the floor, columns carry the beams. Gives a free plan and flexible spaces.
- Wall (slab) system: load-bearing walls – common in housing with many similar rooms.
- Frame: columns and beams rigidly connected at the corners – also takes wind sideways.
- Arches and vaults work in compression. Cables and membranes (suspension bridges, tents) work in tension.
- Truss: bars in triangles – light and stiff over large spans.
- Bracing: the building must also resist sideways forces. Diagonal braces, stiff cores (stairwells, lifts) or shear walls make it stable.
- A deeper beam gives much more stiffness: double the depth gives eight times the stiffness ().
Example
A sports hall needs large spans without columns. Trusses or glulam arches are often used – not post-and-beam with closely spaced columns.
2. Materials and climate
What is it about?
The choice of material decides strength, durability, expression – and greenhouse gas emissions. The building sector accounts for a large share of global emissions, much of it from producing materials.
Key points
- Timber: renewable, light and strong for its weight. Stores carbon. Glulam and mass timber (CLT) give large sizes. Must be protected from moisture.
- Concrete: very strong in compression, weak in tension – so it is reinforced with steel. Cement production causes large CO₂ emissions. Low-carbon concrete reduces this.
- Steel: strong in both tension and compression, gives slender structures. Needs fire protection, and production is energy-intensive – but steel can be recycled and reused.
- Brick and masonry: durable and robust, takes compression. Heat-storing mass.
- Glass: lets light in but insulates worse than a wall.
- Carbon accounting (LCA): emissions are counted over the whole life cycle – materials, transport, operation, conversion and demolition.
- Reuse of materials (old bricks, steel beams, doors) cuts emissions a lot.
Example
A concrete column and a glulam column can carry the same load. The glulam column usually gives far lower emissions, and the carbon in the wood is stored for as long as the building stands.
3. Building physics and energy
What is it about?
The building must keep heat in during winter, keep moisture out and give a good indoor climate – using little energy.
Key points
- The U-value (W/m²K) says how much heat passes through 1 m² of a construction per degree of temperature difference. Low U-value = good insulation.
- Thermal resistance of a layer: (thickness divided by thermal conductivity). For several layers: .
- Heat loss: (watts).
- Thermal bridges: places where heat leaks out more easily, for example at beams through the insulation or around windows.
- Moisture: warm indoor air contains water vapour. The vapour barrier sits on the warm side of the insulation so the moisture does not condense inside the wall.
- Passive houses have very good insulation, airtightness and heat recovery, and need little heating.
- In the Norwegian regulations (TEK17), the measures model uses among others a U-value of at most 0.18 W/m²K for external walls and 0.80 for windows.
Example
A 20 m² wall with U = 0.18 W/m²K and a 30-degree difference between inside and outside: W.
4. Universal design and regulations
What is it about?
Buildings must be usable by everyone, and they must comply with the Planning and Building Act and the building regulations (TEK17) in Norway.
Key points
- Universal design: the building should be usable by as many people as possible on equal terms – without special solutions. This includes wheelchair users, people with visual impairments, the elderly and children.
- A turning space with a diameter of 1.5 m gives room to turn a wheelchair.
- Ramps should as a rule not be steeper than 1:15 – a 1 m rise over a 15 m length.
- Doors in accessible buildings must have at least 0.86 m clear width.
- Contrasts in colour and light make it easier for people with visual impairments to find their way, and guide lines can be followed with a cane.
- The planning system: the municipal master plan says what land is used for, the zoning plan gives the details (heights, plot ratio, purpose).
- Areas: BRA is usable floor area (internal area), BYA is built-up area (the footprint). %-BYA = BYA / plot area · 100 %.
Example
A ramp must rise 0.6 m. With a gradient of 1:15 it must be m long – plus resting landings on the way.
Example problems with solutions
Here are some of the problems in building and regulations. In the app, calculation problems get new numbers every time, so you can practise until it sticks – and take a graded practice exam before the real one.
Structural systems: Which structural system gives the most flexible plan?
Answer: Post and beam
When columns carry the load, walls can be placed freely.
Materials and climate: Why is concrete reinforced?
Answer: Concrete takes little tension
The steel takes the tension, the concrete the compression.
Building physics and energy: What does a low U-value mean?
Answer: Good insulation
Little heat gets through.
Universal design and regulations: How large a turning space does a wheelchair need?
Answer: 1.5 m in diameter
1.5 m is the usual requirement for a turning space.